The women included in the present study showed a normal BMI and were non-smokers but were separated according to the information on contraceptive use. It is thus suggested that hormonal contraceptives affect the number of leukocytes but the underlying mechanism remains to be investigated.
The findings are in accordance to a study by Isaac et al. Higher number of platelets in Females with higher estradiol levels was also reported by Daly and explained by a triggering effect of estradiol on proplatelet formation in megakaryocytes. Differences between men and women were also shown for RBC parameters, i. Further, women of reproductive age have periodic menstrual blood losses which were reported to reduce hematocrit. Moreover, the results indicate higher hematocrit despite lower RBC number in females who do not take hormonal contraceptives compared to women who take contraceptives.
Week to week comparison of the hematological profile indicate that the described gender differences were consistent throughout the study period thus representing general gender differences. Figure 5. RBC deformability showed low day to day variation. Cycle length was longer in Female — HC. In Female — HC, estradiol levels were constant until day 7, then increased with maximum values measured during ovulation and decreased again. Red blood cell deformability was described to be of major importance to transit the smallest capillaries for oxygen supply to the tissues, organs or working muscles.
To the best of our knowledge, studies on long-term monitoring of RBC deformability are lacking. Thus, the recent investigation is the first to show low week-to-week intra-group variation of RBC deformability, thus suggesting preserved stability in constant situations.
This increase was highly related to increasing training volume observed in this study group. Increasing training hours were observed in four out of six women. The stated training intensities were rather moderate and type of sports included jogging, cycling or swimming. The data presented herein are thus in line with the cited literature indicating that even moderate training might positively affect RBC function. Figure 6. Figure 7. A RBC L -arginine levels showed no variation during investigation period and no significant differences between the tested groups.
B This was confirmed by data summary represented as Whiskers plot. A recent study by Tomschi et al. It was suggested that the onset of sex hormones might affect the RBC system. In the aforementioned study, the use of hormonal contraceptives and phase of menstrual cycle was not taken into account. Guillet et al. On the contrary, Derham and Buchan describe a reduction in RBC deformability after taking synthetic progesterons which negatively affected blood viscosity and thus might promote occlusive arterial diseases.
The recent data also indicate an influence of hormonal contraception on RBC deformability. Female participants are often excluded from investigations because hormonal variations during the menstrual cycle were thought to impede the interpretation of the data and might explain varying conclusions from different studies. RBC deformability was higher in Female - HC but values remained constant throughout the study period suggesting that acute estradiol changes as appear during menstruation cycle do not acutely affect RBC deformability.
Instead a general effect of higher estradiol levels on RBC deformability is suggested. A recent study by Farber et al. Unfer et al. CuZnSOD prevents the formation of cytotoxic oxygen-derived free radicals through the rapid conversion of superoxide anion to hydrogen peroxide see for review Zelko et al. The cohesion of high estradiol levels and higher deformability levels might also be explained by the circumstance that estradiol was thought to increase NO production in endothelial cells Rubanyi et al.
Given the fact that endothelial and red blood cell NO production show high similarities Kleinbongard et al. Nitrite has been described as primary oxidation product of NO, thus representing a sensitive marker for NO synthesis Lauer et al.
Mean RBC L -arginine levels of the three tested groups ranged between L -arginine levels were comparable throughout the investigation period and levels showed no significant differences between the groups. The results of the present study suggest long-term stability of hematological and hemorheological parameters at constant conditions. Alterations of the regular conditions, such as an increase of weekly training hours, leads to an increase in RBC deformability.
Gender differences were observed for RBC dependent blood parameters but also contraceptive use of women was shown to affect the blood profile. Differences between the female groups were highly probably related to differing estradiol levels suggested to affect NO synthesizing pathways. Thus, the present results add information on the complex regulation of RBC deformability and recommend to consider gender, training status and hormone levels to interpret basal blood parameters, RBC deformability and related NO data.
MG designed the study, collected and analyzed the data, performed statistics, and wrote the manuscript. WB contributed to study design, interpretation of the data, and the manuscript. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Ahmad, B. Influence of a moderate physical activity intervention on red cell deformability in patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD. Influence of endurance training and marathon running on red cell deformability in HIV patients. Bain, B. Ethnic and sex differences in the total and differential white cell count and platelet count. Google Scholar. Ballas, S.
Sickle cell anemia with few painful crises is characterized by decreased red cell deformability and increased number of dense cells. Baskurt, O. New guidelines for hemorheological laboratory techniques. Nitric oxide, erythrocytes and exercise. Bor-Kucukatay, M. Effects of nitric oxide on red blood cell deformability. Heart Circ. Share on: Facebook Twitter. Show references Sandoval C.
Approach to the child with anemia. Accessed March 24, Schrier SL. Approach to the adult patient with anemia. Types of blood tests. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.
Tefferi A. Diagnostic approach to the patient with polycythemia. Hoffman R, et al. William G. Murphy, Emma Tong, Ciaran Murphy; Why do women have similar erythropoietin levels to men but lower hemoglobin levels?. Blood ; 15 : — Mean red cell mass and hematocrit levels are higher in men than women. How or why this is the case has never been explained.
If decreased erythropoiesis due to iron loss or blood loss in females or increased erythropoiesis due to androgens in males were causative, there would be a feedback effect on erythropoietin production, resulting in lower erythropoietin levels in males. However, reference ranges for erythropoietin are not different between the sexes.
This indicates that females have higher levels of tissue oxygenation for a given red cell mass. This, in turn, suggests that females must have more efficient tissue red cell delivery. In addition, the curves for males and females were parallel: they did not overlap Figure 1 A. When analyzed by age cohort, the mean capillary-venous hemoglobin gap in females increased after the age range of 45 to 50 years.
In males there was gradual decline with age Figure 1 B. Differences between venous and capillary hemoglobin levels in men and women. Introduction: Males have a higher hematocrit Hct than females. The cause of this gender-based difference is unclear. Previously undescribed polymorphisms were found based on band migration on polyacrylamide gel, and when then sequenced.
The distribution of these polymorphisms was studied in a population of non-iron-deficient, healthy blood donors.
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